The Marshes of Glynn - Glynn County, Georgia

It is a little known fact that Georgia has (and protects) more salt marsh than any other state on the East Coast of the United States. Perhaps the best known of these grasslands are the Marshes of Glynn, which separate Jekyll, St. Simons and the other Golden Isles from the mainland of Georgia.

Vast seas of grass that team with life, the Marshes of Glynn are part of one of the most productive eco-systems in the world. They are the breeding grounds for Georgia shrimp, blue crab and oysters and also filter pollutants from water.

The marshes have long attracted the attention of mankind, but they owe their greatest fame to the poet Sidney Lanier. In 1878, he penned his beautiful poem "The Marshes of Glynn," a widely acclaimed work that provides one of the finest word pictures ever written of an American landscape.

The marshes can be seen from the causeways leading to both St. Simons Island and Jekyll Island. The overlook at the Jekyll Island Welcome Center provides a spectacular panoramic view of the marshes, and they can also be seen from many points along the interior coast of Jekyll Island. A particularly beautiful spot is on the grounds of the Horton House Historic Site.

To learn more, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/marshesofglynn.

Warm Springs Area Historic Sites

Spring is a phenomenal time to visit the historic West Georgia community of Warm Springs. The dogwoods, azaleas and other natural plants are in bloom and comfortable temperatures have returned, making the easy drive from nearby Atlanta or Columbus well worth the time.

Located just off the northern slope of Pine Mountain, Warm Springs is rich in both natural and cultural history. The community is a popular gateway to nearby Callaway Gardens, one of the finest outdoor attractions in the South, Warm Springs is also known for its unique old downtown area, President Franklin D. Roosevelt's Little White House and an array of other sites associated with the man who guided America through the Great Depression and World War II.

A beautifully revitalized historic community, Warm Springs is centered around the site of the train station from which President Roosevelt's body was taken in 1945 after he died at the Little White House. A monument marks the train station site and visitors can tour many other sites associated with Roosevelt, including the restored warm water pools that once attracted him to Warm Springs in hope of finding help for the disabling results of his battle with polio. The Little White House is open to the public daily and the nearby Franklin D. Roosevelt State Park includes numerous other areas associated with the late president.

In addition, the scenery of Pine Mountain is just spectacular. Historic Dowdell's Knob offers stunning views of the valley below and trails lead to small waterfalls, rock formations and other unique settings.

To learn more about the Warm Springs area, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/warmsprings.

Horton House Historic District - Jekyll Island, Georgia

The old Horton House on Jekyll Island has been one of my favorite historic sites since I first saw the picturesque ruins as a kid.

A relic of Georgia's Colonial past, the Horton House was built by Major William Horton in around 1740 as English settlement spread south through the Golden Isles following the establishment of Fort Frederica on nearby St. Simons Island by General James Oglethorpe. Horton was the major and second command of Oglethorpe's regiment and his settlement on the north end of Jekyll Island was a major part of Oglethorpe's plan for conquering the former Spanish territory along the Georgia coast.

The two-story house was extremely large for its day and was made of tabby, a concrete like material created by mixing equal parts of lime (made by burning oyster shells), sand, water and oyster shell. The fact that the walls still stand more than 270 years later reveals just how strong tabby was as a building material. In addition to the house, Horton built a barn and other structures, cleared fields and opened the first road across Jekyll Island.

The Spanish burned the Horton House during their raid on St. Simons and Jekyll Islands in 1742, but it was quickly rebuilt using the surviving stone walls. In fact, the house remained the centerpiece of an important plantation until the lands were sold to the Jekyll Island Club in 1886. The old walls witnessed not only the War of Jenkins Ear with the Spanish, but the American Revolution, War of 1812 and Civil War as well.

The house and grounds are today maintained as a historic site and feature not only the old ruins, but interpretive markers, the nearby DuBignon (du Bignon) cemetery and spectacular views of the famed Marshes of Glynn. To learn more, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/hortonhouse.

Stone Mountain, Georgia - History Written in Granite

Stone Mountain Park on the outskirts of Atlanta is home to one of Georgia's most unique historic sites.

Once thought to be the largest such granite outcrop in the world, Stone Mountain has witnessed the passage of thousands of years of Georgia history. Ancient Native Americans, for example, built mysterious stone walls atop the mountain. The purpose of these walls, which do not seem to have been designed as fortifications, is not clear, although most researchers now speculate they were ceremonial in nature. No trace of them remains today.

During the Civil War, the mountain was a key stop on Sherman's March to the Sea. Numerous soldiers describe stopping to admire the view of the impressive mountain of stone, even as they torched local barns and took every scrap of food they could find, leaving hard-working Georgia families to starve.

In later years, the mountain provided a source for granite during the construction boom that followed the Reconstruction years. Stone Mountain granite can be found in public structures and monuments across the South. The term "As Solid as Stone Mountain" became symbolic of the spirit of the New South.

The face of the mountain now displays the world's largest bas-relief carving. The figures of Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson ride on horseback across the face of the mountain, frozen in time.

Stone Mountain Park is a popular tourist destination. To learn more, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/stonemountain.

Battle of Chickamauga, Georgia

The Battle of Chickamauga, fought on September 19 & 20, 1863, was one of the bloodiest battles ever witnessed on the American continent.
Fought in the woods and small fields along the west side of Chickamauga Creek near the modern community of Fort Oglethorpe, the battle resulted in losses of 34,000 killed, wounded and missing from the two armies. It was described by many as a "soldier's fight," because in many cases soldiers stumbled and struggled through overgrown woods with little direction and surrounded by the smoke and confusion of battle.

Chickamauga was also one of the most dramatic Confederate victories of the Civil War. General James Longstreet's Corps attacked just as a gap was accidentally opened in the Union lines. Southern troops pierced the Union line of battle and the Federal army of General William S. Rosecrans collapsed in panic, with only the men under General George H. Thomas, the "Rock of Chickamauga," holding their ground on Snodgrass Hill.

The scene of Braxton Bragg's great victory is now preserved as a unit of the Chickamauga & Chattanooga National Military Park. Other units include Point Park on Lookout Mountain, small reserves on Missionary Ridge and several other areas in and around Chattanooga, Tennessee. The Chickamauga unit is the largest section of the park, however, and features tour roads, monuments, a magnificent visitor center and interpretive markers that help visitors explore the miles of battlefield. To learn more, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/chickamauga. You might also enjoy the new film on the battle which is now available on DVD:

A Georgia Connection to "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing"

It is a little known fact that the English evangelist Charles Wesley, who penned the beautiful Christmas hymn "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing" spent time on the coast of Georgia.

He and his brother, Rev. John Wesley, came to Georgia with General James Oglethorpe in the early days of the Georgia colony. Then a young man, Charles Wesley served as Secretary for Indian Affairs and chaplain for General Oglethorpe, and worked hard with his brother to minister to the early settlers of the colony. Both were closely associated with both Savannah and the military settlement of Fort Frederica on St. Simons Island.

After he left Georgia, Charles Wesley went on to pen many Christian hymns and poems. One of the best known, especially at this season, is "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing."

The efforts of the Wesley brothers are memorialized today on St. Simons Island at the Wesley Memorial Gardens. Surrounded by magnificent trees, the beautiful gardens compliment a stunning monument dedicated to the ministry of the two brothers.

To learn more, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/wesleymemorial.

The Nancy Harts - Georgia's Female Civil War Soldiers

One of the most unique stories of the Civil War in Georgia is that of the famed Nancy Harts, LaGrange's all-female militia company.

Named for Nancy Hart, a Georgia heroine of the the American Revolution, the LaGrange company was formed in 1862 after many of the regular Confederate troops were pulled from the area. Concerned over the fate of their community and the safety of their families, the ladies of LaGrange organized into a volunteer company for the purpose of local defense. Electing Nancy Morgan as their captain, the soldiers began drilling twice weekly in a grove owned by Senator Benjamin Harvey Hill.

The women also served as nurses in the local military hospitals, which overflowed with wounded during the Atlanta Campaign. But in 1865, it appeared that they might actually face their baptism of fire. The column of Union Colonel O.H. LaGrange approached LaGrange (the city is not named for him) after taking Fort Tyler at nearby West Point. Learning that the Federals were approaching, the Nancy Harts formed ranks and marched out to meet him.

To learn the rest of the story, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/nancyharts.

Ocmulgee National Monument - Macon, Georgia

One of the most remarkable archaeological sites in America can be found just minutes from downtown Macon.

Ocmulgee National Monument preserves a massive collection of ceremonial mounds and other Native American sites dating from the Mississippian era (900-1450 A.D.). The Ocmulgee site reached its height 900 to 1100 years ago, when it was the center of a massive chiefdom that covered hundreds of square miles in the central part of Georgia.

Now a national park that is open to the public daily, the Ocmulgee site features both self-guided walking and driving tours, a visitor center, the mounds and a restored earth lodge where high status leaders once conducted important councils centuries ago. The top of the great temple mound can be accessed by stairs and provides a spectacular view of the entire site, as well as the city of Macon itself.

To learn more, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/ocmulgeemounds1.

Ghost of the Springer Opera House - Columbus, Georgia

One of the most unique ghost stories in Georgia is the tale that surrounds the stunning Springer Opera House in Columbus.

Built during the turbulent years of the Reconstruction Era, the Springer has hosted some of the world's top actors and political leaders over the years. Will Rogers once entertained audiences from its stage and William Jennings Bryan and Franklin Delano Roosevelt discussed their dreams for the future of America in the Springer.

But if old Columbus legends are to be believed, one of the theater's most famous guests is still hanging around.

Actor Edwin Booth, the brother of John Wilkes Booth who killed President Abraham Lincoln, came to the Springer to revive his career during the 1870s. With other members of his family, he had gone into voluntary seclusion following the Lincoln assassination. As time passed, however, he decided to try for a "come back" and the Springer was a key stop on that road.

Booth, as the story goes, so loved the Springer and its cheering audiences that he came back after his death to haunt the beautiful old theater. Described as a playful ghost, he supposedly teases female visitors and is said to enjoy causing trouble in the wardrobe area.

To learn more about the Ghost of Springer Opera House, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/springerghost.

Fort Frederica National Monument - St. Simons Island, Georgia

Fort Frederica National Monument on St. Simons Island has been one of my favorite historic sites since my parents took me there when I was maybe 8 or 9 years old. It is hard not to be fascinated with the massive old oaks and the picturesque ruins of Oglethorpe's colonial settlement.

The fort was established in 1736 by English General James Oglethorpe, the founder of the Georgia colony, who anticipated that it would serve as a barrier to Spanish attacks on his fledgling colony and its capital of Savannah. His plan proved very prophetic.

The War of Jenkins' Ear (named for the severed ear of a captured English sea captain) spread to America and Oglethorpe launched a campaign against St. Augustine, Florida, in an effort to capture the Spanish capital. He was unable to reduce the powerful fort of Castillo de San Marcos and withdrew back to Georgia. Two years later, in 1742, Spanish Governor Don Manuel de Montiano retaliated by leading a fleet of warships and an army of 5,000 men north to Georgia.

Fort Frederica by that time had evolved into a powerful citadel on the riverfront and a growing English village surrounded by a stout wall of earth and timber. Spanish ships briefly engaged the cannon of the fort and Montiano attempted to carry out land operations but was defeated by the English at the Battles of Gully Hole Creek and Bloody Marsh.

Frederica survived, as did Oglethorpe's colony of Georgia. Peace returned to the frontier and Georgia grew. The return of peace, however, ultimately spelled the end of Fort Frederica. There was no need for the garrison there and with the end of the garrison came the end of the English village on St. Simons Island. The town dwindled away, was largely destroyed by fire before the American Revolution and ultimately was reclaimed by the forest.

To learn more, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/fortfrederica.

Fort St. Simons - St. Simons Island, Georgia

Often overlooked because it stands in the shadow of the popular and historic St. Simons Lighthouse, a small monument marks the site of Fort St. Simons, one of Georgia's least known coastal forts.

Built in 1738 by the English under James Oglethorpe, the fort was an outpost of nearby Fort Frederica and stood on the southern tip of St. Simons Island. Its purpose was to prevent enemy warships - primarily those of Spain - from entering St. Simons Sound. A bastioned work of earth and wood, Fort St. Simons was armed with 18-pounders, relatively heavy guns for the day.

The fort was tested in 1742 during a key battle of the War of Jenkins' Ear, a conflict between England and Spain named after the severed ear of an English sea captain who had been captured by the Spanish. Despite the strength of its artillery, the fort was unable to hold back a a large Spanish fleet that stormed into the sound in July. Passing the fort, the Spanish landed an army of nearly 5,000 men.

Realizing that he could not hold Fort St. Simons against such an overwhelming force, Oglethorpe spiked its guns and withdrew to his main defenses at Fort Frederica. The Spanish then occupied the ruined fort, using it as a base for their operations on the island over the coming weeks. Troops marched out from the fort for the Battles of Gully Hole Creek and Bloody Marsh.

To learn more about Fort St. Simons, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/fortstsimons.

Fort Tyler - West Point, Georgia

Often overlooked by those who spend time visiting sites associated with Georgia's Civil War history, Fort Tyler in West Point preserves a fascinating Confederate fort that was a key objective during one of the last battles of the war.

Commanded by Brigadier General R.C. Tyler, a wounded veteran with a reputation for courage, and manned by a force variously estimated at from 12o to 265 Confederate regulars, militia, volunteers and wounded soldiers from local hospitals, the little fort held out against 3,750 Union soldiers for the better part of a day.

The Battle of West Point took place on April 16, 1865, an Easter Sunday. General Robert E. Lee had surrendered his forces in Virginia seven days earlier, but Tyler was not so inclined. When the ladies of the area presented him a flag on the eve of the battle, he swore that he would prevail or die in the effort. He kept his word.

As Fort Tyler came under fire from all directions, the Confederate troops within its walls fought bravely. A Union cannon shot cut the flag halyard, but a 17-year-old volunteer climbed the pole and put the flag back in place. In the end, though, General Tyler knew that the fall of the fort was inevitable. His cannon had been dismounted by Union shelling and his men were falling around him. In a final show of defiance, he exposed himself to the fire of the attacking Federals, walking in clear view until he was shot down.

Tyler was the last general on either side killed during the War Between the States. Fort Tyler surrendered not long after his death, its defenders sustained a loss of 19 killed and 28 wounded.

The earthworks of the fort were eventually destroyed to make way for a city reservoir, but in a remarkable restoration project the underground remains of Fort Tyler were discovered by archaeologists, who provided the information necessary to rebuilt the fort on its original site.

Today Fort Tyler stands again in a beautifully maintained park in West Point. To learn more, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/forttyler.

Andersonville National Historic Site - Andersonville, Georgia

Home to the National Prisoner of War Museum, Georgia's Andersonville National Historic Site is a place for reflection on the cost paid by America's prisoners of war throughout the centuries.

Located at the site of Camp Sumter, a major Confederate prisoner of war camp, the national historic site interprets both the importance of Andersonville during the Civil War and the story of American prisoners of war in all conflicts.

Established in 1864 to relieve overcrowding at Confederate prison camps, the facility at Andersonville was originally designed to house up to 10,000 prisoners. Captain Henry Wirz, its commandant, soon found himself overwhelmed by more than 30,000. Conditions deteriorated and by August of 1864 more than 100 men were dying each day at the stockade from exposure, disease and malnutrition. By the end of the war, 13,000 men died at Camp Sumter. Despite evidence that showed he tried desperately to secure relief for the prisoners, Captain Wirz was the only man tried, convicted and executed for war crimes at the end of the Civil War.

The park today preserves the site of the original prison, small sections of which have been reconstructed. Other features of the park include escape tunnels and wells dug by prisoners, the well-preserved Confederate forts that ringed the prison, the National POW Museum and Andersonville National Cemetery. To learn more, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/andersonvillenhs.

The Wirz Monument - Andersonville, Georgia

Often overlooked by visitors to the nearby Andersonville National Historic Site and its National Prisoner of War Museum, one of the South's most interesting monuments stands on Church Street in the small South Georgia town of Andersonville.

Erected in 1908 by the United Daughters of the Confederacy, the stone shaft honors Captain Henry Wirz, the only person tried, convicted and executed for war crimes following the close of the Civil War.

The commandant of the Confederate prison stockade at Camp Sumter (better known as Andersonville), Wirz faced the overwhelming task of trying to care for more than 30,000 Union prisoners of war in a prison originally designed for just one-third that number. Unable to provide proper nutrition or medical assistance for the prisoners in a South being strangled by the Union blockade and cut to pieces by Northern armies, Wirz oversaw a system that resulted in the deaths of more than 13,000 men.

Much of the misery at Andersonville resulted from a decision by Union commanders, including General Ulysses S. Grant, to end the practice of exchanging Confederate prisoners of war for Union soldiers held by the South. Grant believed that the only way to end the war was by ending the South's ability to put armies in the field. By stopping exchanges, he prevented the South from retrieving p.o.w's and returning them to the front lines.

When the war ended, the population of the North was anxious for vengeance - particularly following the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. Captain Wirz was arrested and tried before a military tribunal in Washington, D.C. Despite evidence that he had pleaded for food and medicines to save the lives of the Andersonville prisoners, he was convicted and executed.

Passions soon cooled and Wirz was the only former Confederate executed by the Union following the war. By strange coincidence, the gallows where he met his fate stood on the site of today's U.S. Supreme Court building.

To learn more about the Wirz Monument in Andersonville, Georgia, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/andersonville.

The Little White House - Warm Springs, Georgia

Another of my favorite sites in Georgia is just down the road from Dowdell's Knob (see post of August 18, 2009).

Built by Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1932 on a farm he bought just outside of Warm Springs, the Little White House was one of only two homes ever owned by our nation's longest serving President. It is beautifully preserved today as a memorial to the man who guided the United States through both the Great Depression and World War II.

Roosevelt first came to Warm Springs in 1924 after he heard of progress being made by polio patients who swam in water from the warm mineral springs that flowed down from the sides of Pine Mountain. He had been stricken with polio and was desperate for a cure. The water and people of Warm Springs were not able to cure the future President's body, although his swims there did improve his physical condition, but they did cure his mind, inspiring him to return to political life despite the paralysis resulting from his fight with polio.

FDR was elected Governor of New York in the years following his treatment at Warm Springs, but he had fallen so deeply in love with the small Georgia community and his people that he returned often. It was on one of these visits that he decided to buy a farm on the slopes of Pine Mountain and it was in 1932 that he built the beautiful frame home known today as the Little White House. That same year he was elected President of the United States.

Roosevelt continued to come home to the Little White House throughout his years as President and it was here, while posing for a portrait in 1945, that he collapsed and died.

To learn more about this precious Georgia historic site, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/littlewhitehouse.

Dowdell's Knob - Pine Mountain, Georgia

One of my favorite historic sites in Georgia is Dowdell's Knob. Located high atop Pine Mountain, it was a favorite spot of President Franklin D. Roosevelt.

Stricken with polio, Roosevelt first came to Georgia to in hopes that the natural warm springs that flowed from Pine Mountain might hold curative properties. While he did not find a cure for polio, he did find that swimming in the pools at Warm Springs was good exercise and did make him feel better.

Roosevelt fell in love with the rolling ridges and scenic views around Warm Springs and in 1932 built his Little White House just outside the community. He spent a great deal of time there after being elected President of the United States.

President Roosevelt loved to get out and explore the area, usually behind the wheel of his hand-controlled car. His favorite place to picnic was Dowdell's Knob, a ridge and hilltop that projected from the northern end of Pine Mountain. The President often spent a great deal of time there and even had a stone grill erected.

Roosevelt's grill still stands on Dowdell's Knob, which is now a part of Franklin D. Roosevelt State Park. In addition, visitors can see a statue of the President and read interpretive panels explaining the historical significance ot the site, while also enjoying the picnic area featuring the same views once enjoyed by Roosevelt himself.

To learn more, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/dowdellsknob.

Kolomoki Mounds State Park - Blakely, Georgia

One of the most remarkable archaeological sites in the Americas is now nestled in the pines and surrounded by the peanut fields of Southwest Georgia at Kolomoki Mounds State Park.

Some archaeologists believe that the massive Native American culture once centered at Kolomoki Mounds was the most important of its era north of the powerful Aztec civilization in Mexico. Rising in around 350 A.D., the Kolomoki culture developed widespread trade networks, a highly ceremonial religion, advanced skills in art, astronomy and architecture and built a massive pyramidal mound that remains one of the largest in the United States. They also practiced human sacrifice.

One of the most amazing facts about the array of mounds that still exist at Kolomoki is that they were oriented to serve as a gigantic prehistoric calender and observatory. On the longest day of the year, for example, the sun rises from directly behind the center of the huge 56-foot high Temple Mound (or Mound A). Other mounds in the complex appear to be arranged to coincide with various constellations at key times of the year.

A major component of what scientists call the Weeden Island time period (which takes its name from a unique pottery style first documented at Weedon Island, Florida), the Kolomoki site includes the huge Temple Mound, burial mounds, a vast village plaza and other features such as an unusual "serpent-like" ravine or trench leading up to the base of the large mound.

The civilization vanished roughly 1,000 years before the first European explorers set foot on the Southern coastline. Replaced by the powerful Mississippian culture, the Kolomoki site faded away and never again regained its prominence.

Today the archaeological site is the center of a beautiful state park that features camping, picnicking, nature trails and more. The park's museum encloses most of a burial mound and visitors can follow wooden walkways into the heart of the mound where they can learn about an elaborate burial ceremony that took place there more than 1,500 years ago. The other mounds can also be explored and an interpretive trail and stairway lead to the top of the giant Temple Mound.

To learn more, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/kolomoki1.

Battle of Shepherd's Plantation - Stewart County, Georgia

Just up the Highway 39 from Florence Marina State Park in Stewart County, Georgia, a weathered monument sits off the shoulder of the road pointing out the site of the Battle of Shepherd's Plantation. Fought on June 9, 1836, the engagement was one of the largest fights of the Creek War of 1836.

After the disastrous raid on Roanoke by Jim Henry and the Yuchi warriors, the United States went to war against the portion of the Creek Nation that had taken up arms. General Winfield Scott was assigned to the command of the effort and in his typical plodding style slowly implemented a plan to surround a large block of Creek country with regular and militia troops.

To achieve this, Forts McCreary (sometimes spelled McCrary) and Jones were established along the east side of the Chattahoochee River in Stewart County, Georgia. By June, a force of Georgia militia had also camped at Shepherd's Plantation, a large farm between these two forts. The slave cabins and other structures of the plantation were used to house soldiers.

Despite reports of Indian activity in the area, the militia soldiers were not particularly on their guard. What they did not know was that they were being closely watched by a large force of Creek warriors, probably led by Jim Henry of Roanoke notoriety.

The opportunity for an attack came on June 9, 1836, when the soldiers at Shepherd's Plantation divided into multiple groups. Some went to Fort McCreary (just north of present-day Omaha), some went out to scout and others broke off to wash clothes.

Firing off their weapons to create the ruse of a battle in progress, the Creeks lured Captain Hamilton Garmany and his men into coming out of their quarters at the plantation to a nearby swamp to investigate. They walked right into a trap.

To learn more about at the Battle of Shepherd's Plantation and to see additional photos of the site, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/GAShepherds.

Battle of Roanoke - Stewart County, Georgia

One of the most important yet least known battles in Georgia history took place in the spring of 1836 at a site now submerged by Lake Eufaula (Walter F. George Reservoir) in Stewart County, Georgia.

The Battle of Roanoke was the primary event that opened the Creek War of 1836, the conflict that sent the Creek Nation on the Trail of Tears.

Roanoke was a prosperous new town in 1836, established on fields that had been lost to the Creeks just a few years earlier when a group of chiefs signed a treaty with the whites giving up the nation's lands in Georgia. The treaty was opposed by the majority of Creeks and resulted in the execution of the famed chief William McIntosh by his own people.

The town could be seen from the remaining Creek lands across the Chattahoochee River in Alabama and its presence was a sore thorn in the side of many of the warriors, particularly those of the Yuchi branch of the nation. Frustrated by continuing frauds and other difficulties with the whites, the Creeks launched hostilities during the spring of 1836 with a series of small but deadly raids against settlers living on Creek lands in Alabama. As the raids intensified, the Yuchi decided to take the fight across the river into Georgia. Their primary target was the hated town of Roanoke.

Moving across the river and taking up positions around Roanoke, Jim Henry and the Yuchi warriors watched the comings and goings around the town. They watched as the women and children were evacuated to nearby Lumpkin as a result of the growing tensions along the Creek frontier. And then, on May 14, 1836, they saw many of the man of the town leave to go visit their families. They attacked at 2 a.m. the next morning.

By the time the battle was over, 12 whites lay dead and the town of Roanoke was in ashes. Outraged by what Georgia newspapers called the "massacre" at Roanoke, the whites of the frontier called for the destruction of the Creeks. The war would result in the total removal of the nation from the Southeast on the Trail of Tears.

To learn more, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/roanoke.

The Last Major Battle of the Civil War - Columbus, Georgia

What can rightfully be called the last major battle of the Civil War took place on April 16, 1865, an Easter Sunday, for control of the industrial city of Columbus, Georgia.

Robert E. Lee had already surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia and Columbus was one of the last remaining centers for the production of military supplies in the Confederacy. Factories in the city produced weapons, swords, uniforms and other supplies and one of the largest ironclad warships undertaken by the Confederate Navy was floating in the Chattahoochee River and nearing completion. Time, however, was running out.

The Union army of General James Wilson was storming across Alabama aiming to take both Columbus and Macon. The massive Union raid had already disrupted and destroyed much of the iron industry in Alabama, demolished the Confederate facilities at Selma and captured the state and former Confederate capital of Montgomery. Wilson was now closing in on the line of the Chattahoochee.

One wing of his army, led by Colonel O.H. LaGrange, stormed Fort Tyler at West Point on the afternoon of the 16th, even as Wilson with the main body closed in on the Columbus bridges.

The primary fortifications of Columbus were located on the ridges surrounding Girard (today's Phenix City), a small community on the Alabama side of the river. The Confederates under Major General Howell Cobb did not have enough men to man the entire line, so Cobb concentrated on the forts, batteries and breastworks along the most likely avenues of attack.

Wilson tried to bypass this force by sending a column of cavalry dashing forward at around 2 p.m. in a desperate effort to seize one of the bridges. The attack failed and he was forced to bring up his full command for an assault on the Confederate defenses along the Summerville Road.

It was dark before Wilson's main attack began. At around 9 p.m., the 3rd Iowa and 10th Missouri Cavalry regiments stormed an advanced Confederate line, but came under a heavy fire from artillery and small arms in the main Southern defenses. A second charge up the Summerville Road, however, sliced through Cobb's main line and rolled over the hill and down to the Chattahoochee. Union troops became so mixed in with retreating Confederates that Southern artillerymen on the Georgia side of the river could not fire without hitting their own men.

The Federals stormed across the bridge and into Columbus. His lines in shambles, Cobb withdrew. The last major battle of the Civil War was over, but continues to be studied today because it is a classic example of confused night fighting. More fighting would still take place in Georgia, Texas, Alabama and elsewhere, but the Battle of Columbus was the last major battle of a major campaign.

To learn more, please visit www.exploresouthernhistory.com/battleofcolumbus.